PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS OF SUICIDE

PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS OF SUICIDE

 

Kürşat Şahin YILDIRIMER

University of Northwest, Department of Psychology

Received No: 0097-0001-2112-0001

 

 

Abstract

It is understood that suicide is a major health problem and the leading cause of death worldwide. Because, this subject, which needs much more work, needs to be explained, although it is essential to be developed in the literature. Recent reports report that approximately one million people die by suicide each year, representing the annual global age-standardized suicide rate of 11.4 (15.0 for men and 8.0 for women) per 100,000 population. Considering a time perspective from 2000 to 2016, there has been a 30% increase in suicide rates by age. These ratios are just the tip of an iceberg. There are more who try suicide every year. A cautious estimate shows that more than 20 million people engage in suicidal behavior each year. In addition, considering the WHO's announcement that suicide rates will exceed the one million marks in the next 15 years, it is predicted that suicide rates will increase in the future. Behind every suicide and attempt, there is a long-term struggle of these individuals, their experiences of trauma and distress among their relatives and friends. However, preventing suicide is a global priority. As clinicians and researchers, we must make every effort to find, intervene, and after preventing suicidal behavior. Above all, our mission is to advance our knowledge by understanding the mechanisms, factors, and facilitators of suicide from interdisciplinary perspectives.

 

Keywords: suicide, suicide psychology, reasons for suicide, suicide in psychology, solutions to suicide

 

1.      Introduction

A review of the relationship between rumination and suicidal behavior decides the relationship between the findings and the main psychological risk and protective factors for suicidal ideation and suicidal behavior:

With regard to preventing people at risk from attempting suicide, findings from a meta-analysis of cognitive behavioral therapies for suicidal behavior showed a statistically significant effect of cognitive behavioral therapy for reducing the rate of suicide attempts; however, the researchers demonstrate a publication bias in this regard, with smaller studies reporting more positive effect sizes and no published study findings showing negative effects for any intervention, like a funnel plot of published studies with near-zero centers.

These thoughts include the more specific consequences of suicidal ideation; this means deliberately considering ending one's own life; suicide plan, which refers to the formulation of a specific plan for the individual to end their own life; and suicide attempt refers to engaging in potentially self-harming behavior with at least some intention to die as a result of the behavior.[1] Recent research suggests that social dimensions of perfectionism increase suicide risk by promoting a sense of social disconnection, which is consistent with the integrated motivational-volitional model and the interpersonal theory of suicide.

The big five personality dimensions: neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, openness to experience, and conscientiousness are generally associated with high neuroticism and low extraversion with suicidal ideation, attempts, and completions. More models have been proposed, most emphasizing the interaction between predisposing and accelerating factors. The most key factor leading to suicide is unbearable mental pain.

More studies have emphasized the importance of psychic pain as the primary facilitator of suicidal ideation and behavior. In the Israel MSSA (Medically Serious Suicide Attempts) project, Levi-Belz and colleagues have shown that poor character, along with more relevant factors, can ease suicidal behavior more lethal.[2]

Finally, in the review by Conti et al, the authors systematically review the associations between eating disorders and suicidal ideation and suicide attempts.

More reviewed articles focus on finding risk factors in childhood. In terms of the link between suicidal exposure and risk of suicidal behavior, Stanley et al reported that firefighters who took part in a suicide call were more likely to report suicidal ideation and attempts.

 

2.      Most Suicidal People Do Not Get Treatment and Little Evidence Is Available for Suicide

The effectiveness of the interventions received highlights the enormous importance of future work to develop psychological treatments for people at risk for suicidal behavior. Although more risk factors have been found for suicidal behavior, suicide is when an individual deliberately ends their own life. The development of more innovative brief psychosocial interventions (using a range of delivery methods) to reduce suicidal ideation, attempts, and suicide increases the risk of suicidal and self-harming suicidal behavior and suicidal clusters. In addition, none of the studies of psychologists and psychiatrists have evaluated the relationship between exposure to suicide and their own risk of suicidal thoughts and behavior. Improving understanding of these issues can help clinicians and researchers create specific prevention strategies and methods that will ultimately help reduce suicide rates worldwide and find psychological relief for all those struggling with suicidal ideation and behavior. Correlates of suicide ideation and attempt among youth living in the slums of physical activity and reduced rates of hopelessness, depression, and suicidal behavior among college students. This is not a final and comprehensive report of available knowledge, but rather an introduction to the psychological factors involved in suicide.

Prevalence estimates vary widely by country; however, once present, the characteristics of suicidal behavior are quite consistent in different countries.[3] Social isolation and lack of social support are set up correlates of suicide risk and are important components of contemporary models of suicidal behavior. Because the nature of the relationship with the person who died by suicide for mental health professionals is different from that of first responders, we might expect the effects of suicidal exposure on these two groups to be different. The Suicidal Behavior Questionnaire Revised SBQ-R showed that suicide measures such as IPTS were not evaluated between mental health professionals' exposure to suicide. Fearlessness and insensitivity to pain Since suicidal behavior often involves inflicting physical pain on the body, suicide risk and both pain sensitivity and tolerance and fearlessness of death have been studied. Although earlier theories focused on individual psychological factors, they did not explain why most people with suicidal ideation do not try suicide.[4] Management of suicidal behavior in patients may manifest as increased alertness when assessing suicide, or systematic referral of a patient to another colleague (for a second evaluation), or complete avoidance of treating patients at risk for suicide. predicts future suicide tries beyond other factors, including prior knowledge of suicidal behavior. More evidence suggests that certain forms of cognitive and behavioral therapy that directly target suicidal thoughts and behaviors may reduce the risk of re-attempts in people who have tried suicide. However, if a person with a high suicidal desire gains the ability to try suicide, the risk of a serious suicide attempt increases.

According to the theory, exposure to and meeting earlier painful experiences increases an individual's tolerance for the physical-painful aspects of self-harm through habit processes. Understanding the psychological processes underlying both suicidal ideation and the decision to act on suicidal thoughts is particularly important because interventions should aim to address the first occurrence of suicidal ideation before going ahead to a suicide attempt. Collaborative assessment and management of suicide is a clinical intervention designed to improve the therapeutic alliance and reduce the risk of suicidal behavior. perfectionism Increasing evidence suggests that perfectionism is associated with suicidal ideation and suicide attempts, but few prospective clinical studies have been conducted. A recent systematic review suggests a link between psychological distress experienced in these occupations and higher suicide rates. Exposure to suicide can personally affect first responders and mental health professionals and affect their professional practice. Despite research into resilience ( “It is defined as “the qualities that enable a person to be successful in the face of difficulties”). Some evidence suggests that resilience has a protective effect on suicidal ideation in military personnel, alcohol and illicit drug abusers, and prisoners, but its effect on suicide attempts or deaths by suicide is largely unknown. The recent review by Dutheil Aubert highlighted the lack of research examining the etiology and transition from suicidal ideation to suicide attempt among healthcare professionals. Psychological Theories of Suicidal Behavior The origins of recent theories can be traced back to Freud, but continued research into suicide did not begin in earnest until the 1950s and has grown significantly over the past 25 years. Bullying victimization as a predictor of suicidal ideation and suicide attempt among senior high school students in Ghana: Results from the 2012 Ghana Global School-Based Health Survey. Findings in research using the implicit association evaluate this association differentiated suicidal attempters from distressed people who did not try emergency psychiatric treatment (i.e., suicide attempters responded faster when matching death and self-related stimuli than they did [measured in milliseconds]). Such factors include exposure to the suicidal behavior of others, impulsivity, and access to suicide tools.[5]

 

3.      Risk factors for suicide

The attempting group also scored significantly (p > 0.001) higher on each measure of risk factor for suicide, namely hopelessness, mental pain, and depression, compared with the non-intervention group. changes in pain sensitivity, suicidal ideation or suicidal ideation or behavior; The issue of how these changes change as a function of the suicide history and throughout life needs to be clarified. For example, less than 5% of people hospitalized for treatment of a mood disorder die by suicide; most people with psychiatric disorders will not die by suicide and will not experience suicidal behavior.

The motivational stage finds the factors that govern the development of suicidal ideation and intention, while the volitional stage outlines the factors that decide whether an individual attempts suicide. In the Israel MSSA (Medically Serious Suicide Attempts) project, Levi-Belz and colleagues proved that weak self-disclosure could ease more lethal suicidal behavior, with more factors involved. Psychophysiological stress response Causes of a Person's Symptoms A distinction has been noted between reflective rumination, in which a person dwells on their symptoms, and reflective thinking, in which a person considers the causes of their symptoms and workable solutions.

Rumination has also been associated with increased symptoms of depression, hopelessness, and impaired problem solving; An important goal for future research is to clarify how these factors may work together to increase the risk of suicidal behavior. Consistent with these theories, subjective feeling of lack of social connection and inhibition of belonging was associated with suicidal ideation and suicide attempts. Findings from more studies have shown that self-reported impulsivity is associated with suicidal ideation, suicide attempts, and suicide deaths. Our review highlights more its effects on exposure to suicide and how this may contribute to the negative mental health outcomes associated with an increased risk of suicide. From a clinical point of view, the importance of being able to make predictions about suicidal transitions can be explained by the cubic suicide model, Shneidman (1985), the combination of pressure (stress), pain (psychic pain), and uneasiness can be explained by suicide risk.

 

4.       Zhao and Shai's Study

Zhao and Shai's study reveals that students' attitudes towards suicidal behavior and attitudes towards suicide survivors play as a mediator between self-efficacy and self-evaluations in managing happiness among college students. Second, the integrated motivational-volitional model of suicidal behavior conceptualizes suicide as a behavior (rather than a byproduct of mental disorders) that develops through motivational and volitional stages. This model integrates key factors from earlier theories into a detailed map of the suicide process, from thoughts to suicidal actions.[6] Psychological treatment trials are necessary to reduce suicidal ideation, attempts, and suicide. Psychologists and Psychiatrists Eight of the eleven articles examining the effects of suicidal exposure reported the prevalence of patient suicide focusing on psychologists and psychiatrists, with 31.5–92% of these professionals having experienced at least one client suicide.

Suicide risk is not only related to a psychiatric disorder (stressor) but also to another diathesis (i.e., a tendency to experience more suicidal thoughts or impulsivity). "Can post discharge follow-up contacts prevent suicide and suicidal behavior? A review of the evidence". Depression and hopelessness as risk factors for suicide ideation, tries and death: meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. It requires larger-scale studies testing psychological models and risk factors to predict suicide attempt and death.[7] The lack of studies targeting mental health outcomes after suicide suggests that suicide researchers may not pay enough attention to suicide risk among health professionals and may be better equipped because they are trained to supply support in these situations.

 

5.      Psychological Factors

While psychological factors such as risk-taking and decision making can influence the risk of other causes of death (for example, heart disease and cancer), suicide is perhaps the most directly affected cause of death by psychological factors because a person makes an informed decision. More recently, in a small study of suicidal attempters, hopelessness did not significantly predict future suicide attempts at a 4-year follow-up when history of suicide attempts and entrapment were included in the analysis. For balance, however, most people with psychiatric disorders never commit suicide (that is, experience suicidal thoughts, try suicide, or die by suicide). Scientific Literature The scientific literature has focused on the study of exposure to suicide among different health professionals, but less attention has been paid to first responders, despite some limited, mainly quantitative research. While dissolving the buffers as well as the risks of suicide can be complex, the model offers the conceptualization of suicide from a multifaceted approach integrating individual, social, and familial factors that may be associated with suicide occurrence, thus supplying a broader environmental context interpretation for better understanding and clarification of risk factors. First, Joiner's theory of interpersonal suicide assumes the coexistence of elevated levels of perceived burden (i.e., feeling a burden to others) and low levels of belonging (i.e., feeling alienated or not), and being hopeless that these states will not change, suicidal desire (i.e., suicidal ideation) leads to the development of thought.

 

6.      Psychological Autopsy Studies Psychological

Psychological Autopsy Studies Psychological autopsy studies, which collected information about the deceased from more informants, have played a key role in understanding the risk factors for suicide. This scoping review highlights more of the gaps in the research foundation about exposure to suicide in mental health professionals and first responders. Suicidal Thoughts The science of psychology is well placed to understand why some people try suicide while others do not. Consistent with the interpersonal theory of suicide, the interaction of perceived belonging and burden is predictive of suicidal ideation even after controlling for depressive symptoms. Researchers also relied heavily on self-report observational studies; multi-method approaches, with an increasing focus on basic science experimental research, will help uncover the mechanisms by which factors increase or decrease suicide risk. The integrated motivational-volitional model of suicidal behavior is a diathesis-stress model that decides the components of suicide.[8] Traumatic Cases Unfortunately, adverse life events can affect well-being at any age, and traumatic events in adulthood (for example, physical or sexual abuse; death of a loved one; disasters or accidents; exposure to war or other violence) may also increase. Study findings showed a dose-response relationship between the number of adverse events and the risk of later suicidal behavior; again, physical and sexual abuse seem to carry the highest risk for both the onset and persistence of suicidal behavior. Joiner's theory of interpersonal suicide highlights two main interpersonal structures—perceived burden and denied belonging—as critical characteristics that can lead to suicidal ideation and eventual suicide. Joiner's theory of interpersonal suicide highlights two main interpersonal constructs—perceived burden and denied belonging—as critical characteristics that can lead to suicidal ideation and eventual suicide. An interesting finding from the review is that mental health professionals do not have self-assessments of mental health and suicide. The lack of data on mental health outcomes makes it impossible to compare the effects of exposure to the effects of suicide on mental health professionals with those of first responders. The effects on suicide risk following suicidal grief are discussed in detail by Pitman and colleagues. Considering the scarcity of research on protective factors, efforts have been made to find factors that supply resilience by resisting the risk of suicide in the face of difficulties. While some evidence suggests that different forms of cognitive and behavioral therapy may reduce the risk of suicide attempts, there is virtually no evidence of factors that protect against suicide. Further suicidal behavior among medically serious suicide attempters. The result of repeated exposure to such events for suicide, through the process of repeatedly experiencing painful events such as being suicidal in the workplace, is the loss of the instinctive fear of death, or what is often described as the survival instinct.[9] Psychological theories are important theoretically and clinically because they provide a framework for understanding how complex factors combine to increase suicide risk. Adolescent suicide and suicidal behavior.

 

7.      Prevalence

The prevalence of being exposed to suicide while on duty (including suicidal behaviors) ranged from 34.8% to 92.4%. Hom, Stanley reported the prevalence of suicide exposure (74%) in firefighters' personal lives rather than while on duty. They found that a greater emotional impact of suicide exposure was associated with a statistically significant higher lifetime risk of suicide attempt, suicide risk, depressive symptoms, nightmares, insomnia, and more severe PTSD symptoms. "Suicide and Suicidal Behavior among Transgender Persons". Past suicide attempts have been documented as one of the highest risk factors for another suicide attempt, with up to 20% of those trying re-attempts after the index attempt. One of the contributors to higher levels of psychological distress and VT among mental health professionals and first responders may be higher rates of suicide. The difference was significant (U = 97,632.50, p < 0.001). The effect size using Cohen's d was small (0.40). Suicide Attempt Risk The binary logistic regression model for the factors predicting suicide attempt was significant, χ2(8) = 224.65, p < 0.001, explaining 11.4% of the variance in suicide attempt (Nagelkerke R2) and correctly classifying 98% of the cases.[10] Although many risk factors have been identified, often failing to explain why people try to end their lives, it explains important recent developments in the theoretical, clinical, and empirical science of psychology about the occurrence of suicidal thoughts and behaviors, and it is necessary to emphasize the central importance of psychological factors.

There is also a need to better understand the risk factors and protective factors associated with suicide attempts. A better understanding of the factors that distinguish suicide attempts from those who are serious about it and those who have repeatedly tried suicide is necessary to integrate experimental, natural, clinical and non-clinical research findings. More innovative articles examine the core issue of therapeutic interventions for suicidal patients, with a particular focus on reducing suicide rates. Among youth, particularly college students, suicide is the second leading cause of death alongside self-injury, placing this population at risk, and the importance of research to better understand the threat cannot be overemphasized. For decades, clinical and theoretical explanations have described suicidal people as cognitively rigid or inflexible, leading to the conclusion that suicide is the only choice. Yet these two professional groups differ from each other in that mental health professionals often have formed a therapeutic alliance with the person who has died by suicide, and first responders are often unknown to the individual prior to suicide. Therefore, we suggest that exposure to suicide should be considered as a risk factor as more research is needed to examine the link between exposure and suicidality among first responders. Further, more in-depth research into the effects of suicide exposure among first responders is necessary to understand how exposure to suicide through work affects the individual.

More than 40 years ago, three psychologists came up with the eccentric, somewhat seductive headline "Lottery Winners and Accident Victims: Is Happiness Relative?” published a study entitled Even if you don't think you know what you're writing, there's a good chance you will. Earlier reports have supplied general assessments of the problem of suicidality and evaluate and synthesize current knowledge of the psychology of suicidal behavior, including psychological theories of suicidal behavior, risk and protective factors, and psychological interventions. Anxiety, loneliness, poor self-esteem, anger management problems (Peltzer, Kleintjes, Wyk, Thompson, & Mashego, 2008) and academic difficulties that ultimately hinder subjective well-being have also been found (Oppong Asante, Kugbey, Osafo, Quarshie, & Sarfo, 2017) and potentially the occurrence of psychological distress and poor mental health as contributors to suicidal behavior.[11] Qualitative research has also shown that mental health professionals have an increased fear of suing after a patient's suicide. Gvion and Levi-Belz examined certain risk factors for serious suicide attempts (SSA). Szücs et al. Integrating advances in psychological science into suicide prevention and intervention programs and developing public health interventions to foster resilience is important for low-income and middle-income countries as well as the development of interventions. Yet, compared to the depth of knowledge on suicide, risk, and prevention in the western world (Bridge, Goldstein, & Brent, 2006; Fontenella et al., 2015; Van Geel, Vedder, & Tanilon, 2014), the relative paucity of research on suicide in Africa (Adinkrah, et al). These study findings proved a strong dose-response relationship between the number of adverse events and the risk of later suicide attempts. Based on the ten principles of cognitive theory, the model describes cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and physiological system features associated with the development of suicide risk by Williams (2001). A family history of suicide increases the risk of suicide; this effect is independent of a family history of mental disorders and thus suggests a partial social transference effect. Suicide among soldiers: A review of psychosocial risk and protective factors. Suicidal desire is a necessary reason, although not sufficient for a suicide attempt. It is the impact of exposure to suicide on these two professional groups (mental health professionals and first responders) that underpins this scoping review.

 

8.      Negligence And Psychological Abuse

Negligence and psychological abuse were significantly associated with suicide risk, and this relationship was partially mediated by the maladaptive personality dimension of self-criticism. Relationship problems or loss, substance misuse; physical health problems; and job, money, legal or housing stress often contributed to risk for suicide.[12]

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Mental health professionals (especially psychiatrists) and first responders themselves also have high suicide rates. Those who tried suicide continued to report higher risk factor scores and lower protective factor scores, suggesting that they may continue to be more likely to try suicide. Theoretically informed research that focuses on understanding, not just explanation, is needed to advance our understanding of the context and risk of exposure to workplace suicide. Suicide is a public health problem of paramount importance given its lasting devastating effects on families, friends and communities.

Empirically Validated Interventions Country-specific empirically validated interventions should be informed by evidence-based research. These findings relate to the fact that these professionals may have less training in mental health and suicide prevention than other professional categories. Suicide Risk Management A Manual for Health Professionals (2nd ed.). Chicester: John Wiley & Sons. Cognitive Vulnerability and Suicide as Self-Escape Cognitive vulnerability (for example, social problem solving) explains the relationship between stress and suicide risk. Other studies, not focusing specifically on suicidal behavior, have found worrying prevalence rates (mild, moderate, and severe), inadequate social support, substance abuse, self-stigmatization, and traumatic life events among college students (Andoh-Arthur, Oppong Asante, & Osafo, 2015; Oppong Asante & Andoh-Arthur, 2015). Therefore, it is important to evaluate how young people with a history of suicide attempt function psychologically, to better understand the causes of suicide attempts and to develop suicide prevention strategies. The critical incident review of safety procedures taken by professionals prior to suicide has been reported to be a distressing event, potentially worsening the effects of exposure to suicide. Counselors and Social Workers The only article among counselors and social workers (USA) reporting the effects of suicide exposure reported that 82.7% of the sample was a patient attempt or complete suicide. In addition, this literature has not been reviewed together as a case of occupational-based suicide exposure and its effects. Emotional responses described by professionals included sadness, shock, surprise, blame, despair, guilt, self-doubt, grief, and anger.[13] QoL significantly mediates the associations between emotional difficulties and peer problems, as both are associated with lower QoL, which in turn appears to be associated with a higher risk of suicide. "Suicide among heroin users: rates, risk factors and methods". "Dialectical behavior therapy in adolescents for suicide prevention: systematic review of clinical-effectiveness". Overall, the most common professional response to exposure to suicide was increased awareness of suicide risk in patients. Suicide and suicidal behaviour. "Suicide and suicidal behavior". "Screening for and treatment of suicide risk relevant to primary care: a systematic review for the US Preventive Services Task Force". The trap has also been shown to predict repeated suicide attempts over a 4-year period beyond traditional risk markers. Research findings reveal that those who try suicide show higher fearlessness of injury and death than controls who do not commit suicide, and this difference may explain why men are more likely to die by suicide than women.[14] Suicide can be seen as a behavior motivated by the desire to escape unbearable psychological pain. Regarding reasons to live, a 10-year follow-up study found that psychiatric outpatients with a moderate-to-strong will to die and little will to live were at increased risk of suicide.

 

9.      The World Health Organization Estimates

The World Health Organization estimates that there are approximately 25 cases of suicide attempts for every suicide death. Suicide can be seen as a behavior motivated by an overwhelming desire to escape psychological pain. For example, clinical trials testing dialectical behavioral therapy (in patients with borderline personality disorder) and cognitive therapy (in those who have recently attempted suicide) have supplied support for the effectiveness of these treatments to reduce the rate of suicide reattempts compared to others. Beyond the mental pain: a case-control study on the contribution of schizoid personality disorder symptoms to medically serious suicide attempts.[15]

There is a need for research that addresses the issue of exposure to suicide among these professionals and focuses on its emotional and occupational effects. The groundbreaking work of Emile Durkheim laid the foundations for our understanding that suicide is also a social behavior with more cultural characteristics. However, exposure to suicide only during the seizure was associated with an increased risk of suicide in these firefighters. Findings from psychological autopsy studies show that more than 90% of people who die by suicide have a psychiatric disorder before they die. A Global Health and Social Issue Suicide is a global health and social problem, and an estimated 800,000 people die by suicide each year. Regarding the reassessment of career choices, questioning one's career choice is not limited to health professionals and has been seen in other professions dealing with emotionally sensitive content, such as suicide researchers. Those who tried suicide reported higher Median scores for all three risk factor measures. "Risk factors for suicide in the transgender community". No studies have reported measures of suicide risk among psychologists and psychiatrists exposed to suicide. This finding is consistent with the continuum approach, and the risk of suicide increases as the individual attempts to think and plan. The results show that the group that tried suicide had a higher risk of suicide than the group that did not try suicide. The relationship between suicide ideation, behavioral health, and college academic performance. Recent reports report that approximately one million people die by suicide each year, representing the annual global age-standardized suicide rate of 11.4 (15.0 for men and 8.0 for women) per 100,000 population.

Considering a time perspective from 2000 to 2016, there has been a 30% increase in suicide rates by age.

These ratios are just the tip of an iceberg.[16] There is minimal research on these strategies. conducted a systematic review of randomized controlled trials that reported that therapeutic interventions were effective in reducing self-harm, including suicide attempts. Most studies were conducted in the USA, other studies UK, Australia, Ireland, France, Belgium, Italy No research from other countries All articles evaluating suicide exposure used web surveys. Changes in professional practice after a patient's suicide include increased awareness of suicide risk, decreased confidence, and more restrictive practices, including increased monitoring and detention for nurses. Adolescents who reported lower social support from their parents, peers, and school were more likely to have a history of suicide attempts. Finding suicide risk among college students: a systematic review.[17] Recent research suggests that agitation predicts suicide attempts, especially in people with high suicidality. Peer Review Reports Suicide has become a major public health problem with 800,000 deaths per year. "Suicide risk in relation to socioeconomic, demographic, psychiatric, and familial factors: a national register-based study of all suicides in Denmark, 1981–1997". It is important to have information about the psychological factors that affect the preference of one suicide method over another. Although impulsivity has been studied for decades, the association with suicide risk is not as consistent or straightforward as originally thought, and its impact may be less direct. Perhaps more importantly, this mental association with death warrants further investigation as it predicts future suicide attempts by clinicians or patients. For example, focusing on the life events of adolescents and young adults, as well as college-aged students (i.e., 18- to 24-year-olds in China) can be instrumental in increasing our understanding of factors associated with suicidal behavior. As the ability develops, testing of psychological theories of suicide risk should be the rule rather than the exception. Due to the lack of research among paramedics and ambulance personnel, we cannot draw conclusions about the effects of exposure to suicide among these professionals. While more researchers report that the relationship between negative life events and suicidal behavior is mediated by the presence of mental disorders, other study findings do not support this explanation. Suicide risk screening: comparing the Beck depression inventory-II, Beck hopelessness scale, and Psychache scale in undergraduates. The risk of suicide increases when feelings of defeat and entrapment are high and the potential for recovery (e.g., social support) is low. Most people who struggle with suicidal thoughts and behaviors do not seek treatment.

 

10.  Personality and Individual Differences

Although more risk factors have been found, they often do not explain why people try to end their lives. The difference was significant (U = 97,582.00, p < 0.001). The effect size using Cohen's d is small (0.40). Purpose in Life Mean score of the group who tried suicide in the measurement for life purpose was 18.2 ± ±5.1 and Median score of 19 (min = 4, max= 28), Mean score of those who did not try suicide is 20.4±±4.6 and the Median score is 21 (4. So, if Brickman was suffering from an underlying condition, as Rabinowitz argues, there was obviously too much hiding. Predicting precisely who will die by suicide has long eluded mental health professionals. "Air Pollution (Particulate Matter) Exposure and Associations with Depression, Anxiety, Bipolar, Psychosis and Suicide Risk: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". His professional responses ranged from increased awareness of suicide risk, decreased professional confidence, fear of publicity and lawsuits, increased referrals to psychiatrists, and workplace sadness. For a sample range, including older adults, and people with chronic pain, perceived burdensome has also been shown to mediate the relationship between perfectionism and suicidal ideation, and continued to predict thought even after controlling for factors such as depression and hopelessness.

While reliable and official statistics on suicide among university students in Ghana are lacking, more studies supply insight into the risks for better understanding of events among this group.[18] A narrative review of the relationship between victimization, depression and suicide ideation among lesbian, gay and bisexual individuals. Borderline personality disorder and eating disorders have been reported as comorbid antecedents of suicide attempts. Although psychological mechanisms (e.g., modeling effects) need more experimental research, media depictions of suicide may affect suicide rates. Such studies have found several cognitive factors that appear to increase the risk of suicidal behavior. Although 60% of the world's suicides occur in Asia, psychological suicide is still dominated by research in populations in Western Europe, the USA, and Canada. Suicidal thinking and behavior among youth involved in verbal and social bullying: Risk and protective factors. Suicide studies should routinely include psychological components, especially when it comes to large-scale nationally linked studies of suicide and suicide attempts. In addition, distress/trauma led to suicide through an increased risk of psychosis, as proved by cognitive symptoms. Associations between depression, anxiety, stress, hopelessness, subjective well-being, coping styles and suicide in Chinese university students.[19] Personality and individual differences, cognitive factors, social aspects and negative life events are factors that contribute to suicidal behavior. The emotional effects reported were related to the news of suicide and fear of being sued, 19.8% reported distress after the suicide press release, and 44.5% of professionals were distressed by the prospect of litigation. Personality and individual differences, cognitive factors, social aspects and negative life events contribute significantly to suicidal behavior. Hence, the increasing concentration of research on finding risk factors for suicidal ideation and attempts (Osman et al., 1998).[20]

 

11.  Conclusions

A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies by Soto-Sanz et al found that youth with lower self-esteem were up to twice as likely to try suicide in the future. Perfectionism can be defined in diverse ways and is not equally associated with the risk of all types of suicide. "Screening for suicide risk in adolescents, adults, and older adults in primary care: US Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement". Rodriguez and colleagues found that those who did not try self-harm and had a significantly higher life purpose compared to patients who tried suicide. Childhood sexual and physical abuse is a particularly strong risk.

Like anxiety, these outcomes are associated with suicide risk. In addition, considering the WHO's announcement that suicide rates will exceed the one million marks in the next 15 years, it is predicted that suicide rates will increase in the future.[21]

Behind every suicide and attempt, there is a long-term struggle of these individuals, their experiences of trauma and distress among their relatives and friends. "Suicide and suicide risk in lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender populations: review and recommendations". Exploratory path models about the associations between suicide ideation, depression, interpersonal difficulties, and self-esteem among young adults. For most groups, the effects of exposure to suicide have been reported in the personal and professional domains. Reconnecting with oneself while struggling between life and death: the phenomenon of recovery as experienced by persons at risk of suicide.

Gatekeeper suicide training's effectiveness among Malaysian hospital health professionals: a control group study with a three-month follow-up. First, there was a complete lack of research on exposure to suicide among paramedics and ambulance workers. Suicide can be decided by the interaction of numerous factors such as neurobiology, personal or family history, stressful events, and sociocultural environment. "Lithium treatment and suicide risk in major affective disorders: update and new findings". "Annual Research Review: A meta-analytic review of worldwide suicide rates in adolescents". Predictive value of psychological characteristics and suicide history on medical lethality of suicide attempts: a follow-up study of hospitalized patients. Those who tried suicide reported significantly lower Median scores for all three measures of protective factor compared with those who did not try suicide. Moreover, most people experience more type of negative life event at more point in their lives, but do not engage in suicidal behavior; this highlights the importance of considering how vulnerability factors and stressors might interact to produce suicidal behavior, as theoretical models suggest. Cipriano et al conducted a recent systematic review of suicide attempts focusing on epidemiological, etiological, and diagnostic criteria. Risk factors Few studies have examined risk factors for suicidal behavior in certain populations. Correlates of suicide risk among secondary school students in Cape Town. The role of hopelessness and meaning in life in a clinical sample with non-suicidal self-injury and suicide attempts.

This modest estimate of 25 attempted suicides[22] for every suicide death gives us an estimate that 20 million people attempt suicide annually.[23] Consequently, it is essential in this special issue to aim to improve knowledge about suicide by identifying specific psychological characteristics that can facilitate targeted prevention, intervention methods and programs. Findings from studies in which behavioral tests of cognitive rigidity were applied to those who tried suicide and from clinical controls supported this view. In a classic study, Beck and colleagues were able to predict 91% of all suicides due to blocked belonging.

However, findings from a 12-year prospective Finnish study showed that hopelessness was a non-significant predictor of suicide compared with hopelessness (in a sample of 224 suicide attempts). Barriers to seeking help and the role of the media (including social media) in the suicide process are also poorly understood; Although there are media guidelines on suicide reports, more empirical evidence is needed on which aspects of reporting are most dangerous. The aim of this study was to explore the psychological understanding of the phenomenon of suicide as well as non-suicidal self-harm (suicide attempts).[24] Suicide ideation and depression in university students in Botswana. When the pain becomes unbearable: case-control study of mental pain characteristics among medically serious suicide attempters. Social factors Suicide does not happen in a social vacuum. Predicting future suicide attempts among adolescent and emerging adult psychiatric emergency patients. Mental pain, communication difficulties, and medically serious suicide attempts: a case-control study. Interpersonal-Psychological Model Joiner (2005) )15 The suicidal urge results from an elevated level of burden and inhibition of belonging.

An appraisal model suggesting that risk arises from the interaction between biases in information processing, schema, and evaluation systems is summarized by Wenzel and Beck (2008) as a cognitive model of suicidal behavior. Subjective psychological well-being (WHO-5) in assessment of the severity of suicide attempt. Theoretically, this study examines suicide from the perspective of the human ecological model to understand the occurrence of suicide among university students. Therefore, for this population, attitudes towards suicide can be understood as one of the factors shaping self-assessment and life satisfaction. Police officers have the highest exposure to suicide, followed by firefighters, psychiatrists, counselors, social workers and psychologists the lowest. Suicide communication on social media and its psychological mechanisms: an examination of Chinese microblog users. Nock, professor of psychology at Harvard and the nation's leading scientist on suicide, conducted a famous study in 2010 that showed that clinicians in a major city psychiatric emergency room were no better at guessing who is with a coin flip after leaving their care. Amid the downward trend in suicide rates in China over the past 20 years, an increase in suicide deaths among young adults has been reported. More research is needed on this phenomenon, particularly among police, firefighters, and ambulance workers/medical workers, given that going to a suicide scene can increase related outcomes.[25]

Most suicides are brutal mysteries, the "private and inexpressible" pain of the deceased, as Kay Redfield Jamison put it in his 1999 masterpiece "The Night Is Falling: Understanding Suicide." However, Brickman wrote more than 50 book chapters and academic articles in his short life, as well as a book published posthumously. However, impulsivity should still be considered when assessing the risk of suicide or self-harm. Global Health Observatory data repository: suicide rates estimate, crude. They also suggested using (history of attempt) scores or SBQ-R total scores to develop subgroups of individuals with a history of suicide attempt/attempt and never tried suicide: Suicide Attempt Group. 39% of those who reported having been exposed to suicide during their personal lives said, “ that he was affected by suicide ” but” He stated that it was not at a level that would turn my life upside down. As such, it seems to ignore psychologists and psychiatrists as potentially more at risk of suicide. Mood has also been found to prove diagnostic accuracy for sign of earlier and recent suicide attempts among undergraduates.

 

12.  Results

Above all, our mission is to advance our knowledge by understanding the mechanisms, factors, and facilitators of suicide from interdisciplinary perspectives. Therefore, more specific markers of suicide risk need to be defined. This group of professionals are often the first to be involved in a suspected suicide event, which is described as one of the most critical and traumatic situations first responders can meet during their work. For example, in one chart study of 76 patients who died by suicide on admission, 79% had severe anxiety or agitation shortly before their death. Suicide prevention on college campuses: what works and what are the existing gaps?[26] The results showed that the incidence of suicide peaks in the spring and around Christmas, emphasizing the importance of health care accessibility during these high-risk moments. While defeat and entrapment are good, the fixed structures in the Psychopathology literature offer important hope for applications in suicide research. A fourth limitation found in the literature is the lack of definition of the relationship between healthcare professionals and the patient who died by suicide (e.g., case manager, psychotherapist, or prescriber). It is important for those who have tried suicide to understand and prevent future attempts. "Animal Suicide Sheds Light on Human Behavior". Finally, psychological science has more offer policy planners in the development and implementation of suicide prevention programs. Therefore, the two-pronged specific aims of the study were to decide the lifetime and current prevalence of suicidal ideation or attempts; It is necessary to find the associated risks and protective factors. But the most common feature among people who die by suicide are symptoms of mental illness. The higher the level of on-duty suicide exposure, the more likely officers were to report a PTSD diagnosis, suggesting that taking part in suicide scenes had a specific PTSD effect. In reviewing these factors, we summarize what is known to date, but do not fully describe the potential mechanisms by which these factors may influence suicidal behavior, an extremely important target for future research. Suicide attempts were found to be most common among adolescents and young adults. Female professionals and those who felt more responsible for the patient's death had more pronounced emotional reactions at once after a patient's suicide. Impulsivity may be useful in predicting recurrent suicide attempts in individuals with personality disorders. This explains important recent developments in the theoretical, clinical, and empirical science of psychology about the occurrence of suicidal thoughts and behaviors, and it is necessary to emphasize the vital importance of psychological factors. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 33, 165–171. Suicide & Life-Threatening Behavior. Suicide & Life-Threatening Behavior. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior. "What Distinguishes Suicide Attempters from Suicide Ideates? A Meta-Analysis of Potential Factors". "Lithium in the prevention of suicide in mood disorders: updated systematic review and meta-analysis".

 

13.  References

"CBCNews.ca Mobile". Cbc.ca. 1999-02-01. Archived from the original on 2014-08-07. Retrieved 2014-08-06.

"CDC finds suicide rates among middle-aged adults increased from 1999 to 2010". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. May 2, 2013. Archived from the original on 21 June 2013. Retrieved 15 July 2013.

"German politician Roger Kusch helped elderly woman to die". Times Online. July 2, 2008. Archived from the original on June 1, 2010.

 "Govt decides to repeal Section 309 from IPC; attempt to suicide no longer a crime". Zee News. December 10, 2014. Archived from the original on May 15, 2015. Retrieved December 10, 2014.

"Hinduism – Euthanasia and Suicide". bbc. 2009-08-25. Archived from the original on 2009-02-25.

 "India wife dies on husband's pyre". 22 August 2006. Retrieved 30 June 2019.

"Recommendations for Reporting on Suicide" (PDF). National Institute of Mental Health. 2001. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 April 2013. Retrieved 15 May 2013.

"Reporting Suicide and Self Harm". Time To Change. 2008. Archived from the original on 2016-01-14. Retrieved 2 Jan 2016.

 "Reports" (PDF). 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-09-08. Retrieved 25 July 2016.

"Suicide rates Data by country". who.int. Archived from the original on 15 October 2015. Retrieved 23 November 2014.

"Suicide rates rising across the US | CDC Online Newsroom | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 11 April 2019. Retrieved 19 September 2019. Relationship problems or loss, substance misuse; physical health problems; and job, money, legal or housing stress often contributed to risk for suicide.

"Suicide". Suicide (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Plato.stanford.edu. 2017. Retrieved 2009-05-06.

 "Summary tables of mortality estimates by cause, age and sex, globally and by region, 2000–2016". World Health Organization. 2018. Retrieved 21 December 2018.

 "The Suicide". The Walters Art Museum. Archived from the original on 2013-01-16.

Adinkrah, M. (2011). Epidemiologic characteristics of suicidal behavior in contemporary Ghana. Crisis, 32, 31–36. doi: 10.1027/0227-5910/a000056 [Crossref], [PubMed],

 Adinkrah, M. (2012). Better dead than dishonored: Masculinity and male suicidal behavior in contemporary Ghana. Social Science & Medicine, 74, 474–481. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.10.011 [Crossref], [PubMed], ,

 Aen MA, Ibrahim N, Che DN. A narrative review of the relationship between victimization, depression and suicide ideation among lesbian, gay and bisexual individuals. Int J Indian Psychol. 2017;4(2):1–24.

"Angelakis I, Gooding P, Tarrier N, Panagioti M (July 2015)." (“(PDF) Psychological Assistant Bot Using Artificial ...”) "Suicidality in obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD): a systematic review and meta-analysis". Clinical Psychology Review. 39:1–15. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2015.03.002. PMID 25875222.

 Anguiano L, Mayer DK, Piven ML, Rosenstein D (Jul–Aug 2012). "A literature review of suicide in cancer patients". Cancer Nursing. 35 (4): E14-26. doi:10.1097/NCC.0b013e31822fc76c. PMID 21946906. S2CID 45874503.

 Appel JM (May 2007). "A suicide right for the mentally ill? A Swiss case opens a new debate". The Hastings Center Report. 37 (3): 21–3. doi:10.1353/hcr.2007.0035. PMID 17649899. S2CID 28038414.

Backscheider PR, Ingrassia C (2008). A Companion to the Eighteenth-Century English Novel and Culture. John Wiley & Sons. p. 530. ISBN 978-1-4051-5450-5.

 Baetz, M., & Bowen, R. (2011). Suicidal ideation, affective lability, and religion in depressed adults. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 14, 633–641. doi: 10.1080/13674676.2010.504202 [Taylor & Francis Online],

 Baiden, P., Kuuire, VZ, Shrestha, N., Tonui, BC, Dako-Gyeke, M., & Peters, KK (2019). Bullying victimization as a predictor of suicidal ideation and suicide attempt among senior high school students in Ghana: Results from the 2012 Ghana Global School-Based Health Survey. Journal of School Violence, 18, 300–317. doi: 10.1080/15388220.2018.1486200 [Taylor & Francis Online], ,

Bertolote JM, Fleischmann A (October 2002). "Suicide and psychiatric diagnosis: a worldwide perspective". World Psychiatry. 1 (3): 181–5. PMC 1489848. PMID 16946849.

Bertolote JM, Fleischmann A, De Leo D, Wasserman D (2004). "Psychiatric diagnoses and suicide: revisiting the evidence". crisis. 25(4): 147–55. doi:10.1027/0227-5910.25.4.147. PMID 15580849. S2CID 13331602.

Bohanna I, Wang X (2012). "Media guidelines for the responsible reporting of suicide: a review of effectiveness". crisis. 33(4): 190–8. doi:10.1027/0227-5910/a000137. PMID 22713977. S2CID 1262883.

 Bordereau C, Robert A, Van Tuyen V, Peppuy A (1997-08-01). "Suicidal defensive behavior

 Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development. American Psychologist, 32, 513–531. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.32.7.513 [Crossref], ,

 Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). "The ecology of human development: Experiment by nature and design." (“Social Structure and Personality | SpringerLink”) Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Bruffaerts R, Demyttenaere K, Hwang I, Chiu WT, Sampson N, Kessler RC, et al. (July 2011). "Treatment of suicidal people around the world". The British Journal of Psychiatry. 199 (1): 64–70. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.110.084129. PMC 3167419. PMID 21263012.

Calabrò RS, Naro A, De Luca R, Russo M, Caccamo L, Manuli A, et al. (2016). "The Right to Die in Chronic Disorders of Consciousness: Can We Avoid the Slippery Slope Argument?". Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience. 13 (11–12): 12–24. PMC 5300707. PMID 28210521.

Chang K (August 25, 2008). "In Salmonella Attack, Taking One for the Team". The New York Times. Archived from the original on August 5, 2017.

 Cheng Q, Kwok C, Zhu T, Guan L, Yip P. Suicide communication on social media and its psychological mechanisms: an examination of Chinese microblog users. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2015;12(9):11506–27.

 Choi, HY, Kim, SI, Yun, KW, Kim, YC, Lim, WJ, Kim, EJ, & Ryoo, JH (2011). A study on correlation between anxiety symptoms and suicidal ideation. Psychiatry Investigation, 8(4), 320–326. https://doi.org/10.4306/pi.2011.8.4.320. [Crossref], [PubMed], ,

Conway C, Surgenor PW, Thekiso TB, Moore A, Campion A, Tormey A, et al. Client personal recovery and recovery orientation of an Irish suicide intervention charity. Ir J Psychol Med. 2018;35(2):113–20.

Cox GR, Owens C, Robinson J, Nicholas A, Lockley A, Williamson M, et al. (March 2013). "Interventions to reduce suicides at suicide hotspots: a systematic review". BMC Public Health. 13: 214. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-214. PMC 3606606. PMID 23496989.

 Cox WT, Abramson LY, Devine PG, Hollon SD (September 2012). "Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Depression: The Integrated Perspective". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 7(5): 427–49. doi:10.1177/1745691612455204. PMID 26168502. S2CID 1512121.

 Curhan, KB, Levine, CS, Markus, HR, Kitayama, S., Park, J., Karasawa, M., … Ryff, CD (2014). Subjective and objective hierarchies and their relations to psychological wellbeing: A US/Japan comparison. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 5, 855–864. doi: 10.1177/1948550614538461 [Crossref], [PubMed], ,

 Curtin SC, Warner M, Hedegaard H. Increase in suicide in the United States, 1999–2014. NCHS Data Brief (2016) 241:1–8. [PubMed]

Dodds TJ (March 2017). "Prescribed Benzodiazepines and Suicide Risk: A Review of the Literature". The Primary Care Companion for CNS Disorders. 19 (2). doi:10.4088/PCC.16r02037. PMID 28257172.

 Dogra N, Srivastava S (2012-01-01). Climate change and disease dynamics in India. New Delhi: The Energy and Resources Institute. p. 256. ISBN 978-81-7993-412-8. Archived from the original on 2015-09-28.

 Duffy, Michael Costa, Mark (1991). Labor, prosperity and the nineties : beyond the bonsai economy (2nd ed.). Sydney: Federation Press. p. 315. ISBN 978-1-86287-060-4.

 Durkee T, Hadlaczky G, Westerlund M, Carli V (October 2011). "Internet pathways in suicidality: a review of the evidence". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 8 (10): 3938–52. doi:10.3390/ijerph8103938. PMC 3210590. PMID 22073021.

Fässberg MM, van Orden KA, Duberstein P, Erlangsen A, Lapierre S, Bodner E, et al. (March 2012). "A systematic review of social factors and suicidal behavior in older adulthood". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 9(3): 722–45. doi:10.3390/ijerph9030722. PMC 3367273. PMID 22690159.

 Fazel S, Runeson B (January 2020). "Suicide". New England Journal of Medicine. 382 (3): 266–74. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1902944. PMC 7116087. PMID 31940700. S2CID 210332277.

 Fei F, Liu H, Leuba SI, Li Y, Hu R, Yu M, et al. Suicide rates in Zhejiang Province, China, from 2006 to 2016: a population-based study. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2019;73:745-9.

 Fontenella, CA, Hiance-Steelesmith, DL, Phillips, GS, Bridge, JA, Lester, N., Sweeney, HA, & Campo, JV (2015). Widening rural-urban disparities in youth suicides, United States, 1996–2010. JAMA Pediatrics, 169, 466–473. doi: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2014.3561 [Crossref], [PubMed], ,

Greydanus DE, Shek D (September 2009). "Deliberate self-harm and suicide in adolescents". The Keio Journal of Medicine. 58 (3): 144–51. doi:10.2302/kjm.58.144. PMID 19826208.

 Griffin-Fennell, F., & Williams, M. (2006). Examining the complexities of suicidal behavior in the African American community. Journal of Black Psychology, 32, 303–319. doi: 10.1177/0095798406290469 [Crossref], ,

 Grinshteyn E, Kendiway D (March 2016). "Violent Death Rates: The US Compared with Other High-income OECD Countries, 2010". (“Violent Death Rates: The US Compared with Other High ...”) The American Journal of Medicine. 129 (3): 266–73. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2015.10.025. PMID 26551975.

Gullota TP, Bloom M (2002). Encyclopedia of Primary Prevention and Health Promotion. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum. p. 1112. ISBN 978-0-306-47296-1.

 Gunnell D, Eddleston M, Phillips MR, Konradsen F (December 2007). "The global distribution of fatal pesticide self-poisoning: systematic review". BMC Public Health. 7: 357. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-7-357. PMC 2262093. PMID 18154668.

Gutman Y, Berenbaum M (1998). Anatomy of the Auschwitz death camp (1st ed.). Bloomington: Publ. in association with the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, DC by Indiana University Press. p. 400. ISBN 978-0-253-20884-2.

 Gvion Y, Levi-Belz Y, Hadlaczky G, Apter A. On the role of impulsivity and decision-making in suicidal behavior. World J Psychiatry (2015) 5(3):255. 10.5498/wjp.v5.i3.255 [PMC free ] [PubMed] [CrossRef]

Hogenboom M (6 July 2016). "Many animals seem to kill themselves, but it is not suicide". bbc. Archived from the original on 26 February 2017. Retrieved 2017-07-20.

 "Holden RR, Mehta K, Cunningham EJ, McLeod LD. Development and preliminary validation of a scale of psychache." (“Frontiers | Research on Psychache in Suicidal Population ...”) Can J Behav Sci. 2001;33(4):224.

 Holt, Gerry."When suicide was illegal" Archived 2014-02-07 at the Wayback Machine. BBC News. 3 August 2011. Accessed 11 August 2011.

 Horowitz LM, Ballard ED, Pao M (October 2009). "Suicide screening in schools, primary care and emergency departments". Current Opinion in Pediatrics. 21(5): 620–7. doi:10.1097/MOP.0b013e3283307a89. PMC 2879582. PMID 19617829.

 Horwitz AG, Czyz EK, King CA. Predicting future suicide attempts among adolescent and emerging adult psychiatric emergency patients. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2015;44(5):751–

Joiner TE, Brown JS, Wingate LR (2005). "The psychology and neurobiology of suicidal behavior". Annual Review of Psychology. 56: 287–314. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070320. PMID 15709937. S2CID 4250507.

 Kant, Immanuel. (1785) Kant: The Metaphysics of Morals, M. Gregor (trans.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. ISBN 978-0-521-56673-5. p. 177.

 Karch DL, Logan J, Patel N (August 2011). "Surveillance for violent deaths—National Violent Death Reporting System, 16 states, 2008". MMWR. Surveillance Summaries. 60 (10): 1–49. PMID 21866088.

 Kinchin I, Doran C. The cost of youth suicide in Australia. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2018;15(4):672.

Krug, Etienne G. (2002). World Report on Violence and Health. World Health Organization. p. 191. ISBN 978-92-4-154561-7. Archived from the original on 2016-09-14.

Kutcher S, Chehil S (2012). Suicide Risk Management A Manual for Health Professionals (2nd ed.). Chicester: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 30–33. ISBN 978-1-119-95311-1.

 Lakey CE, Hirsch JK, Nelson LA, Nsamenang SA. Effects of contingent self-esteem on depressive symptoms and suicidal behavior. Death Stud. 2014;38(9):563–70.

 Lanham D, Bartal BF, Evans RC, Wood D (2006). Criminal laws in Australia. Annandale, NSW: The Federation Press. p. 229. ISBN 978-1-86287-558-6.

 Law BM. Psychometric properties of the existence subscale of the purpose in life questionnaire for Chinese adolescents in Hong Kong. Sci World J. 2012;2012.

 Law S, Liu P (February 2008). "Suicide in China: unique demographic patterns and relationship to depressive disorder". Current Psychiatry Reports. 10 (1): 80–6. doi:10.1007/s11920-008-0014-5. PMID 18269899. S2CID 24474367.

Levin JD, Culkin J, Perrotto RS (2001). Introduction to chemical dependency counseling. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson. pp. 150–52. ISBN 978-0-7657-0289-0.

 Lew B, HuenJ, Yu P, YuanL, WangD-F,Ping F, et al. Associations between depression, anxiety, stress, hopelessness, subjective well-being, coping styles and suicide in Chinese university students. PLoS ONE. 2019;14(7):e0217372. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0217372.

The Beck depression and anxiety inventories. Behav Res Ther. 1995;33(3):335–43.

 Lovibond, PF, & Lovibond, SH (1995). The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories. Behavior Research and Therapy, 33(3), 335–343. doi: 10.1016/0005-7967(94)00075-U [Crossref], [PubMed], ,

 Lucas-Molinaa, B., Pérez-Albénizb, A., & Fonseca-Pedrerob, E. (2018). The potential role of subjective wellbeing and gender in the relationship between bullying or cyberbullying and suicidal ideation. Psychiatry Research, 270, 595–601. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2018.10.043 [Crossref], [PubMed], ,

 Luoma JB, Martin CE, Pearson JL (June 2002). "Contact with mental health and primary care providers before suicide: a review of the evidence". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 159 (6): 909–16. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.159.6.909. PMC 5072576. PMID 12042175.

 Luxton DD, June JD, Comtois KA (January 2013). "Can postdischarge follow-up contacts prevent suicide and suicidal behavior? A review of the evidence". crisis. 34 (1): 32–41. doi:10.1027/0227-5910/a000158. PMID 22846445. S2CID 25181980.

 Manthorpe J, Iliffe S (December 2010). "Suicide in later life: public health and practitioner perspectives". International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry. 25 (12): 1230–8. doi:10.1002/gps.2473. PMID 20104515. S2CID 23697880.

 Maris R (2000). Comprehensive textbook of suicidology. New York [ua]: Guilford Press. pp. 97–103. ISBN 978-1-57230-541-0.

 Maris R (2000). Comprehensive textbook of suicidology. New York: Guilford Press. p. 540. ISBN 978-1-57230-541-0.

Minois, Georges (2001). History of Suicide: Voluntary Death in Western Culture (Johns Hopkins University ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6647-0.

 Mirsu-Paun, A. (2015). Exploratory path models about the associations between suicide ideation, depression, interpersonal difficulties, and self-esteem among young adults. European Psychiatry, 30, 28–31. doi: 10.1016/S0924-9338(15)30755-0 [Crossref], ,

 Mok K, Jorm AF, Pirkis J (August 2015). "Suicide-related Internet use: A review". The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 49 (8): 697–705. doi:10.1177/0004867415569797. hdl:11343/58519. PMID 25698810. S2CID 26744237.

Moody HR (2010). Aging: concepts and controversies (6th ed.). Los Angeles: Pine Forge Press. p. 158. ISBN 978-1-4129-6966-6.

 Mortier, P., Auerbach, RP, Alonso, J., Axinn, WG, Cuijpers, P., Ebert, DD, … Bruffaerts, R. (2018). Suicidal thoughts and behaviors among college students and same-aged peers: Results from the World Health Organization World Mental Health Surveys. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 53, 279–288. doi: 10.1007/s00127-018-1481-6 [Crossref], [PubMed], ,

Naghavi M, Wang H, Lozano R, Davis A, Liang X, Zhou M, et al. (GBD 2013 Mortality and Causes of Death Collaborators) (January 2015). "Global, regional, and national age-sex specific all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 240 causes of death, 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013". lancet 385 (9963): 117–71. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61682-2. PMC 4340604. PMID 25530442. For the number 712,000, see Table 2, line "Self-harm", first column (year 1990)

 Nanewortor, F. (2011). The impact of religiosity, Africentric values and psychological distress on adolescent suicidal ideation in Ghana (Unpublished master 'thesis). Department of Psychology, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra.

 Nemeroff CB, Owens MJ, Bissette G, Andorn AC, Stanley M (June 1988). "Reduced corticotropin releasing factor binding sites in the frontal cortex of suicide victims". Archives of General Psychiatry. 45 (6): 577–9. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1988.01800300075009. PMID 2837159. S2CID 23574459.

 Nobel J (Mar 19, 2010). "Do Animals Commit Suicide? A Scientific Debate". time. Archived from the original on March 22, 2010.

O'Hanlon L (Mar 10, 2010). "Animal Suicide Sheds Light on Human Behavior". Discovery News. Archived from the original on 2010-07-25.

 O'Keeffe, Terence M. (1984). "Suicide and Self-Starvation". philosophy 59 (229): 349–363. doi:10.1017/S0031819100069941. JSTOR 3750951.

 Oliveira MP, Silveira DX, Silva MT (June 2008). "[Pathological gambling and its consequences for public health]". Revista de Saude Publica. 42(3): 542–9. doi:10.1590/S0034-891020080050000026. PMID 18461253.

Olson R (2011). "Suicide and Language". Center for Suicide Prevention. InfoExchange (3): 4. Archived from the original on 6 May 2012. Retrieved 15 May 2013.

 Oppong Asante, K., & Andoh-Arthur, J. (2015). Prevalence and determinants of depressive symptoms among university students in Ghana. Journal of Affective Disorders, 171, 161–166. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2014.09.025 [Crossref], [PubMed], ,

 Oppong Asante, K., Kugbey, N., Osafo, J., Quarshie, ENB, & Sarfo, JO (2017). (“Gender-specific factors of typical and atypical suicidal ...”) The prevalence and correlates of suicidal behaviors (ideation, plan and attempt) among adolescents in senior high schools in Ghana. SSM-Population Health, 3,427–434. doi: 10.1016/j.ssmph.2017.05.005 [Crossref], [PubMed], ,

 Orbach I. Mental pain and suicide. Isr J Psychiatry Relat Sci (2003) 40(3):191–201. [PubMed]

 Orford, J. (2008). Community psychology: Challenges, controversies and emerging consensus. New York: John Wiley & Sons. [Crossref],

 

 Owusu-Ansah, FE (2008). Control feelings and control appraisal: Relation to measures of subjective wellbeing. Ghana Medical Journal, 42, 61–67. [PubMed],

 Owusu-Ansah, FE, Agyei-Baffour, P., & Edusei, K. (2012). Perceived control, academic performance and subjective wellbeing of Ghanaian college students with disability. African Journal of Disability, 1, 34–40. doi: 10.4102/ajod.v1i1.34 [Crossref], [PubMed],

 Ozawa-de Silva C (December 2008). "Too lonely to die alone: internet suicide pacts and existential suffering in Japan". Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry. 32(4): 516–51. doi:10.1007/s11013-008-9108-0. PMID 18800195. S2CID 145475668.

Pallanti S, Rossi NB, Hollander E (2006). "11. Pathological Gambling". In Hollander E, Stein DJ (eds.). Clinical manual of impulse-control disorders. American Psychiatric Pub. p. 253. ISBN 978-1-58562-136-1.

 Paperno I (1997). Suicide as a cultural institution in Dostoevsky's Russia. Ithaca: Cornell university press. p. 60. ISBN 978-0-8014-8425-4. Archived from the original on 2015-09-28.

 Paris J (June 2004). "Is hospitalization useful for suicidal patients with borderline personality disorder?". Journal of Personality Disorders. 18 (3): 240–7. doi:10.1521/pedi.18.3.240.35443. PMID 15237044. S2CID 28921269.

 Peltzer, K., Kleintjes, S., Wyk, BV, Thompson, EA, & Mashego, TAB (2008). Correlates of suicide risk among secondary school students in Cape Town. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 9, 596–609.

 Picard D, Robinson M (2012-11-28). Emotion in motion: tourism, affect and transformation. Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate. p. 176. ISBN 978-1-4094-2133-7.

 Pickering WS, Walford G (2000). Durkheim's Suicide : a century of research and debate (1st publ. ed.). London: Routledge. p. 69. ISBN 978-0-415-20582-5. Archived from the original on 2016-04-02.

Putnam CE (2002). Hospice or hemlock? : searching for heroic compassion. Westport, CT: Praeger. p. 143. ISBN 978-0-89789-921-5.

 Qin P, Agerbo E, Mortensen PB (April 2003). "Suicide risk in relation to socioeconomic, demographic, psychiatric, and familial factors: a national register-based study of all suicides in Denmark, 1981–1997". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 160(4): 765–72. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.160.4.765. PMID 12668367. S2CID 25133734.

 Quarshie, ENB, Cheataa-Plange, HV, Annor, F., Asare-Doku, W., & Lartey, JKS (2019). (“Self-harm with suicidal and non-suicidal intent in young ...”) Prevalence of suicidal behavior among nursing and midwifery college students in Ghana. Nursing Open. doi: 10.1002/nop2.271 [Crossref], [PubMed], ,

 Quarshie, ENB, Osafo, J., Akotia, CS, & Peprah, J. (2015). Adolescent suicide in Ghana: A content analysis of media reports. International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-Being, 10. doi: 10.3402/qhw.v10.27682 [Taylor & Francis Online], ,

 Rajkumar R, Fam J, Yeo EY, Dawe GS (September 2015). "Ketamine and suicidal ideation in depression: Jumping the gun?". Pharmacological Research. 99:23–35. doi:10.1016/j.phrs.2015.05.003. PMID 25982932.

Richa S, Fahed M, Khoury E, Mishara B (2014). "Suicide in autism spectrum disorders". Archives of Suicide Research. 18(4): 327–39. doi:10.1080/13811118.2013.824834. PMID 24713024. S2CID 25741716.

Ritzer G, Stepnisky J, eds. (2011). The Wiley-Blackwell companion to major social theorists. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-4443-9660-7.

 Robinson J, Hetrick SE, Martin C (January 2011). "Preventing suicide in young people: systematic review". The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 45 (1): 3–26. doi:10.3109/00048674.22010.511147. PMID 21174502. S2CID 24708914.

 Robinson P, Heitmann S, Dieke PU (2010). Research themes for tourism. Oxfordshire [etc.]: CABI. p. 172. ISBN 978-1-84593-684-6.

 Rodríguez SP, Salvador JH, García-Alandete J. The role of hopelessness and meaning in life in a clinical sample with non-suicidal self-injury and suicide attempts. psychothema 2017;29(3):323–8.

 Rosenberg M. Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton: Princeton University Press; 1965.

 Roth R. "Suicide & Euthanasia – a Biblical Perspective". acu-cell.com. Archived from the original on 2009-04-18. Retrieved 2009-05-06.

 Rozanov V, Carli V (July 2012). "Suicide among war veterans". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 9 (7): 2504–19. doi:10.3390/ijerph9072504. PMC 3407917. PMID 22851956.

 Ryff, CD, & Keyes, CL (1995). The structure of psychological well-being revised. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 719–727. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.69.4.719 [Crossref], [PubMed], ,

Sarchiapone, M., Mandelli, L., Iosue, M., Andrisano, C., & Roy, A. (2011). Controlling access to suicide means. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 8, 4550–4562. doi: 10.3390/ijerph8124550 [Crossref], [PubMed], ,

 Scalvini M (2020-06-18). "13 Reasons Why : can a TV show about suicide be 'dangerous'? What are the moral obligations of a producer?". Media, Culture & Society. 42 (7–8): 1564–1574. doi:10.1177/0163443720932502. ISSN 0163-4437.

 Scalvini M, Rigamonti F (October 2017). "Why we must defend suicide in fiction". BMJ. 359: j4743. doi:10.1136/bmj.j4743. PMID 29046321. S2CID 22599053.

 Schulenberg SE, Schnetzer LW, Buchanan EM. "The purpose in life test-short form: development and psychometric support." (“[PDF] The Purpose in Life Test-Short Form: Development and ...”) J Happiness Stud. 2011;12(5):861–76.

Shneidman ES. Commentary: suicide as psychache. J Nerv Ment Dis (1993) 181(3):145–7. 10.1097/00005053-199303000-00001 [PubMed] [CrossRef]

Shrivastava A, Kimbrell M, Lester D (2012). Suicide from a global perspective : psychosocial approaches. New York: Nova Science Publishers. pp. 115–18. ISBN 978-1-61470-965-7.

 Siau CS, Wee LH, Ibrahim N, Visvalingam U, Yeap LL, Wahab S. Gatekeeper suicide training's effectiveness among Malaysian hospital health professionals: a control group study with a three-month follow-up. J Cont Educ Health Prof. 2018;38(4):227–34.

 Siau CS, Wee LH, Yacob S, Yeoh SH, Binti Adnan TH, Haniff J, Perialathan K, Mahdi A, Rahman AB, Eu CL, Binti WS. The attitude of psychiatric and non-psychiatric health-care workers toward suicide in Malaysian hospitals and its implications for training. Acad Psychiatry. 2017;41(4):503–9.

 Simpson G, Tate R (December 2007). "Suicidality in people surviving a traumatic brain injury: prevalence, risk factors and implications for clinical management". Brain Injury. 21 (13–14): 1335–51. doi:10.1080/02699050701785542. PMID 18066936. S2CID 24562104.

 Simpson GK, Tate RL (August 2007). "Preventing suicide after traumatic brain injury: implications for general practice". The Medical Journal of Australia. 187(4): 229–32. doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.2007.tb01206.x. PMID 17708726. S2CID 44454339. Archived from the original on 2011-09-10.

 Sisask M, Varnik A (January 2012). "Media roles in suicide prevention: a systematic review". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 9 (1): 123–38. doi:10.3390/ijerph9010123. PMC 3315075. PMID 22470283.

 Sisask, M., Värnik, A., Kolves, K., Konstabel, K., & Wasserman, D. (2008). (“Identifying Predictors of University Students’ Wellbeing ...”) Subjective psychological well-being (WHO-5) in assessment of the severity of suicide attempt. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 62, 431–435. doi: 10.1080/08039480801959273 [Taylor & Francis Online], ,

 Smith WJ (August 2007). "Death on Demand: The assisted-suicide movement sheds its fig leaf". NRL News. 34(8):18.

 Snider, AM (2011). Youth suicide, subjective well-being and the role of place in New Zealand (Unpublished master 'thesis). School of Geography, Environment and Earth Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand.

Sobh T (2010). Innovations and advances in computer sciences and engineering (Online-Ausg. ed.). Dordrecht: Springer Verlag. p. 503. ISBN 978-90-481-3658-2.

 Soto-Sanz V, Piqueras JA, Perez-Vazquez MT, Rodriguez-Jimenez T, Castellvi P, Miranda-Mendizabal A, Pares-Badell O, Almenara Barrios J, Blasco MJ, Cebria A, Gabilondo A. Self-esteem and suicidal behavior in youth: a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. psychothema 2019;31(3):246–54.

 St John-Stevas N (2002). Life, Death and the Law: Law and Christian Morals in England and the United States. Beard Books. p. 233. ISBN 978-1-58798-113-5.

Stone DM, Simon TR, Fowler KA, Kegler SR, Yuan K, Holland KM, et al. (June 2018). "Vital Signs: Trends in State Suicide Rates – United States, 1999–2016 and Circumstances Contributing to Suicide – 27 States, 2015". MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 67 (22): 617–624. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6722a1. PMC 5991813. PMID 29879094.

 Sue D, Sue DW, Sue S, Sue D (2012-01-01). Understanding abnormal behavior (Tenth [student] ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning. p. 255. ISBN 978-1-111-83459-3. Archived from the original on 2015-10-30.

Szasz T (1999). Fatal freedom : the ethics and politics of suicide. Westport, CT: Praeger. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-275-96646-1.

Takako Yamada: The Worldview of the Ainu. Nature and Cosmos Reading from Language, p. 25–37, p. 123. (“Suicide (purple Jumping Man) - TheInfoList”)

 Taliaferro, LA, Rienzo, BA, Pigg, RM, Miller, MD, & Dodd, VJ (2009a). Associations between physical activity and reduced rates of hopelessness, depression, and suicidal behavior among college students. Journal of American College Health, 57(4), 427–436. doi: 10.3200/JACH.57.4.427-436 [Taylor & Francis Online], ,

 Taliaferro, LA, Rienzo, BA, Pigg, RM, Miller, MD, & Dodd, VJ (2009b). Spiritual well-being and suicidal ideation among college students. Journal of American College Health, 58, 83–90. doi: 10.3200/JACH.58.1.83-90 [Taylor & Francis Online], ,

 Tanji, F., Tomata, Y., Zhang, S., Otsuka, T., & Tsuji, I. (2018). (“Moderate suicide risk (Concept Id: C1271075)”) Psychological distress and completed suicide in Japan: A comparison of the impact of moderate and severe psychological distress. Preventive Medicine, 116, 99–103. doi: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2018.09.007 [Crossref], [PubMed], ,

Tintinalli, Judith E. (2010). Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide (Emergency Medicine (Tintinalli)). New York: McGraw-Hill Companies. pp. 1940–46. ISBN 978-0-07-148480-0.

 Tofilski A, Couvillon MJ, Evison SE, Helanterä H, Robinson EJ, Ratnieks FL (November 2008). "Preemptive defensive self-sacrifice by ant workers" (PDF). The American Naturalist. 172 (5): E239-43. doi:10.1086/591688. PMID 18928332. S2CID 7052340. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2009-11-27.

Turecki G, Brent DA (March 2016). "Suicide and suicidal behaviour". lancet 387 (10024): 1227–39. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)00234-2. PMC 5319859. PMID 26385066.

 Turecki G, Brent DA. Suicide and suicidal behaviour. Lancet (2016) 387(10024):1227–39. 10.1016/S0140-6736(15)00234-2 [PMC free ] [PubMed] [CrossRef]

University of Manchester Center for Mental Health and Risk. "The National Confidential Inquiry into Suicide and Homicide by People with Mental Illness" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 July 2012. Retrieved 25 July 2012.

 Ury HK. "Efficiency of case-control studies with multiple controls per case: continuous or dichotomous data." (“Observational Studies: Cohort and Case-Control Studies”) biometrics. 1975:643–9.

 Van Geel, M., Vedder, P., & Tanilon, J. (2014). Relationship between peer victimization, cyberbullying, and suicide in children and adolescents: A meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatrics, 168, 435–442. doi: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2013.4143 [Crossref], [PubMed],

 Van Niekerk, L., Scribante, L., & Raubenheimer, PJ (2012). Suicidal ideation and attempt among South African medical students. South African Medical Journal, 102, 372–373. doi: 10.7196/SAMJ.5503 [Crossref], [PubMed], ,

 Van Orden K, Conwell Y (June 2011). "Suicides in late life". Current Psychiatry Reports. 13 (3): 234–41. doi:10.1007/s11920-011-0193-3. PMC 3085020. PMID 21369952.

 Van Orden KA, Witte TK, Cukrowicz KC, Braithwaite SR, Selby EA, Joiner TE., Jr. The interpersonal theory of suicide. Psychol Rev (2010) 117(2):575–600. 10.1037/a0018697 [PMC free ] [PubMed] [CrossRef]

Van Orden, KA, Witte, TK, Cukrowicz, KC, Braithwaite, C., Selby, EA, & Joiner, TE (2010). The interpersonal theory of suicide. Psychological Review, 117, 575–600. doi: 10.1037/a0018697 [Crossref], [PubMed], ,

 Van Os J, Kapur S (August 2009). "Schizophrenia" (PDF). lancet 374 (9690): 635–45. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60995-8. PMID 19700006. S2CID 208792724. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-06-23. Retrieved 2013-01-22.

 Varnik P (March 2012). "Suicide in the world". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 9 (3): 760–71. doi:10.3390/ijerph9030760. PMC 3367275. PMID 22690161.

Vaughan, Megan. "The 'discovery' of suicide in Africa". bbc. Retrieved 2020-06-16.

Veatch RM (1997). Medical ethics (2nd ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett. p. 292. ISBN 978-0-86720-974-7.

 Verrocchio MC, Carrozzino D, Marchetti D, Andreasson K, Fulcheri M, Bech P. Mental pain and suicide: a systematic review of the literature. Front Psychiatry (2016) 7:108. 10.3389/fpsyt.2016.00108 [PMC free ] [PubMed] [CrossRef]

 Vijayakumar L, Kumar MS, Vijayakumar V (May 2011). "Substance use and suicide". Current Opinion in Psychiatry. 24 (3): 197–202. doi:10.1097/YCO.0b013e3283459242. PMID 21430536. S2CID 206143129.

 Virupaksha HG, Muralidhar D, Ramakrishna J (2016). "Suicide and Suicidal Behavior among Transgender Persons". Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine. 38 (6): 505–509. doi:10.4103/0253-7176.194908. PMC 5178031. PMID 28031583.

Wagstaff A, Perry C (2003). "Clozapine: in prevention of suicide in patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder". CNS Drugs. 17 (4): 273–80, discussion 281–3. doi:10.2165/00023210-200317040-00004. PMID 12665398.

 Walker, ER, McGee, RE, & Druss, BG (2015). Mortality in mental disorders and global disease burden implications: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry, 72, 334–341. doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.2502 [Crossref], [PubMed], ,

Wang Y, Wan Q, Huang Z, Huang L, Kong F. Psychometric properties of multi-dimensional scale of perceived social support in Chinese parents of children with cerebral palsy. Front Psycho. 2017;8:2020.

 Wang Z, Wang J, Bao J, Gao X, Yu C, Xiang H. Temporal trends of suicide mortality in mainland China: results from the age-period-cohort framework. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2016;13(8):784.

 Wang, L., He, CZ, Yu, YM, Qui, XH, Yang, XX, Qiao, ZX, … Yang, YJ (2014). Association between impulsivity, aggression and suicide in Chinese college students. BMC Public Health, 14, 551–558. doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-14-551 [Crossref], [PubMed], ,

Warburton, N (2004). The Basics - Philosophy (4th ed.). New York: Routledge. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-415-32773-2.

 Watson B (2007). Exit Rommel: The Tunisian Campaign, 1942–43. Stackpole Books. p. 170. ISBN 978-0-8117-3381-6.

 Wegman HL, Stitler C (October 2009). "A meta-analytic review of the effects of childhood abuse on medical outcomes in adulthood". Psychosomatic Medicine. 71 (8): 805–12. doi:10.1097/PSY.0b013e3181bb2b46. PMID 19779142. S2CID 25054003.

 Weiyuan C (December 2009). "Women and suicide in rural China". Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 87 (12): 888–9. doi:10.2471/BLT.09.011209. PMC 2789367. PMID 20454475.

Wolitzky-Taylor K, LeBeau RT, Perez M, Gong-Guy E, Fong T. Suicide prevention on college campuses: what works and what are the existing gaps? A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Coll Heal. 2020;68(4):419–29.

 World Health Organisation. (2014). Preventing suicide: A global imperative. Geneva: Author.

 World Health Organization Preventing suicide: a resource for media professionals, update 2017. Geneva: WHO; (2017). Retrieved from apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/258814/1/WHO-MSD-MER-17.5-eng.pdf.

 World Health Organization. (2012). Public health action for the prevention of suicide: A framework. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO Press.

 World Health Organization. Depression and other common mental disorders: global health estimates. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2017. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/254610/WHO-MSD-MER-2017.2-eng.pdf. Accessed 14 Dec 2019

 World Health Organization. Global Health Observatory data repository: suicide rates estimate, crude. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2019. http://apps.who.int/gho/data/node.main.MHSUICIDE. Accessed 25 Dec 2019

Yanowitch R, Coccaro EF (2011). "The neurochemistry of human aggression". (“Effects of Escitalopram Administration on Face Processing ...”) Advances in Genetics. Elsevier. 75: 151–69. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-380858-5.00005-8. ISBN 9780123808585. PMID 22078480.

 Yen, C., Liu, T., Yang, P., & Hu, H. (2015). Risk and protective factors of suicidal ideation and attempt among adolescents with diverse types of school bullying involvement. Archives of Suicide Research, 19, 435–452. doi: 10.1080/13811118.2015.1004490 [Taylor & Francis Online], ,

Yip PS (2008). Suicide in Asia causes and prevention. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-962-209-943-2.

 Yip PS, Caine E, Yousuf S, Chang SS, Wu KC, Chen YY (June 2012). "Means restriction for suicide prevention". lancet 379 (9834): 2393–9. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60521-2. PMC 6191653. PMID 22726520.

 Yoshioka E, Hanley SJ, Kawanishi Y, Saijo Y (February 2016). "Time trends in method-specific suicide rates in Japan, 1990–2011". Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences. 25 (1): 58–68. doi:10.1017/S2045796014000675. PMC 6998669. PMID 25373686.

Youssef NA, Rich CL (2008). "Does acute treatment with sedatives/hypnotics for anxiety in depressed patients affect suicide risk? A literature review". Annals of Clinical Psychiatry. 20(3): 157–69. doi:10.1080/10401230802177698. PMID 18633742.

 Zahid S, Upthegrove R (July 2017). "Suicidality in Autistic Spectrum Disorders" (PDF). crisis. 38(4): 237–246. doi:10.1027/0227-5910/a000458. PMID 28468556. S2CID 10644601.

"Zalsman G, Hawton K, Wasserman D, van Heeringen K, Arensman E, Sarchiapone M, et al. (July 2016)." (“Interventions - db0nus869y26v.cloudfront.net”) "Suicide prevention strategies revisited: 10-year systematic review". The Lancet. psychiatry 3 (7): 646–59. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30030-X. hdl:1854/LU-8509936. PMID 27289303. "Other approaches that need further investigation include gatekeeper training, education of physicians, and internet and helpline support." (“Suicide prevention strategies ... - The Lancet Psychiatry”)

 "Zimet GD, Dahlem NW, Zimet SG, Farley GK. The multidimensional scale of perceived social support." (“Perceived Social Support | MSPSS - Greenspace Mental ...”) J Pers Assess. 1988;52(1):30–41.

Zuckerman P (2007). Martin M (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Atheism. Cambridge University press. pp. 58–59. ISBN 978-0521603676.

 

---

[1] That is, it is not clear why the factors work together to increase the risk of this behavior.

[2] Psychological Factors In the last century, the contribution of psychological factors (both individual and social) to suicide and suicide risk has been recognized. These include attentional bias, impulsivity, problem-solving, and decision-making deficits.

[3] The risk of non-fatal suicidal behavior is increased in younger people, women (who have higher rates of non-fatal suicidality than men, but men are more likely to die by suicide), unmarried people, and people who commit suicide.

[4] These more recent mixed findings suggest that while hopelessness is important in the development of suicidal ideation (consistent with theoretical models), other factors may be more useful in predicting actual suicide attempts or deaths.

[5] The Median score was 63 ± 0.48 and the Median score was 1 (min = 0, max = 1), while the Mean score of those who did not try suicide was 0.11 ± 0.31 and the Median score was 0 (0.1). The difference was significant (U = 214,248.00, p < 0.001). The effect size using Cohen's d is medium (0.72).

[6] Stressful, humiliating or defeating conditions are considered the most important within the integrated motivational-volitional model. Role of social support in adolescent suicidal ideation and suicide attempts.

[7] About one-third of people who are considering suicide will go on to try suicide, and more than 60% of these transitions will occur within the first year after the first onset of suicidal ideation. While research to date has supplied most insights into the complex effects of suicide exposure on mental health professionals, limited research has been done on the impact of suicide exposure on first responders.

[8] Therefore, the main purpose of this study is to examine whether there is a difference in risk (depression, hopelessness, and mental pain) and psychiatric problems between individuals who try suicide and those who do not. A total of 11,806 students from seven provinces in China were recruited as potential participants.

[9] Despite using IPTS-derived measures, no studies have compared the suicidal exposure theory assumption as a possible cause of suicide.

[10] Focusing on the differential effects of psychological factors on suicide risk as a function of age, culture, and ethnicity should be increased. Approximately 45% of individuals who died as a result of suicide consult a physician in particular without reporting their suicidal wishes and thoughts in the month before their death. Psychological Risk and Protective Factors associated with suicide risk can be classified into four groups: 1. Approximately 45% of individuals who died as a result of suicide consult a physician within one month of death, without reporting their suicidal thoughts and wishes.

[11] Over the last century, we have recognized the contribution of psychological factors (both individual and social) to suicide and suicide risk. Other Interpersonal Stressors After various interpersonal stressors control the risk of suicidal behavior and even the effects of mental disorders, interpersonal stressors can take various forms and more  diverse types of stressors have been associated with suicidal behavior, including romantic problems, legal difficulties, loss of income, non-straight orientation and bullying, victimization.

[12] They found that emotional intelligence as a mediator was associated with psychological distress and suicide risk. In addition, exposure to suicide appears to be associated with suicide risk among first responders and should be the focus of the suicide prevention protocol.

[13] Therefore, it is the responsibility of psychologists, psychiatrists and relevant mental health professionals to understand suicide and develop methods to predict and prevent its occurrence. Future research will decide whether positive future thought and suicide attempts change over time and whether the content of positive future thought influences the degree to which positive thoughts are protective.

[14] However, the precise nature of the association is unclear, as evidence suggests that suicide risk is associated with abnormal cortisol concentrations or a maladaptive cortisol response to stress. examined quality of life (QoL) as a factor that may serve as a link between psychopathology and suicide risk among a clinical adolescent population.

[15] Emile Durkheim's seminal work laid the foundations for our understanding that suicide is also a social behavior with more cultural characteristics. The professional responses described showed that suicide risk and increased awareness of suicide cues were the most common effects on professional practice.

[16] Other suicide prevention strategies that have been considered are crisis centers and hotlines, method control, and media education...

[17] One explanation for the higher suicide rates among these occupations is higher levels of occupational psychological distress and work-related Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) for first responders. However, more evidence in college students suggests that people with high optimism have a reduced risk of suicidal ideation or try when faced with serious or moderately negative life events, compared with people with low optimism. Thus, although the presence and accumulation of psychiatric disorders are risk factors for suicidal behavior, they have little predictive power and, perhaps more importantly, do not explain why people try to kill themselves.

[18] The most common professional change was nurses' increased awareness of suicide risk among patients.

[19] Risk Taking and Decision-Making Suicide is the 14th leading cause of death worldwide, responsible for 1.5% of all deaths. He was also the first to review the literature on the effects of suicide exposure on first responders. While most studies were unable to decide the efficacy of therapeutic interventions for both primary and secondary outcomes, individual self-directed and socially driven processes seemed to offer the greatest hope in reducing suicide attempts.

[20] However, there are exceptions; In the 18-year follow-up of depressed patients, neuroticism did not predict future suicide risk.

 

[21] Sequence factors for both the onset and persistence of suicidal behavior and the risk of suicidal behavior are especially high in childhood and adolescence, and the relationship between childhood adversities and suicidal behavior decreases with age.

[22] For every suicide death, about 135 other people experience significant adverse effects. It may not be significant in all cases of suicide risk, but it is more likely to be clear in the young than in the elderly.

[23] Risk factors are events or situations that are positively associated with suicidal behavior.

[24] And the period when a person is at highest risk of dying by suicide is at once after leaving a psychiatric institution. (U = 170,489.00, p < 0.001). The effect size using Cohen's d is small (0.28). Self-respect For self-esteem, the mean score of the group who tried suicide was 25.4 ± ±3.9 and Median score of 25 (min = 12, max = 37), Mean score of those who did not try suicide is 27.3±±He had a 3.7 and a Median score .

[25] Any risk of suicide should naturally assess how socially isolated a vulnerable individual is. Well-being and social capital: Do suicide pose a puzzle? Social Indicators Research, 81, 455–496. A meta-analysis by Ribeiro and colleagues showed that individuals with hopelessness and depression had a weighted mean odds ratio of 1.63 (95% CI 1.55–1.72) to try suicide.

[26] A systematic review and meta-analysis. "Gender Issues in Suicide Risk Assessment". Loss aversion predicted suicide attempt in both cross-sectional and 4-month prospective analyzes after controlling for depression, anxiety, stress, and gender.